The Highland Clearances, often incorrectly linked to the aftermath of the Jacobite Rising of 1745, saw Scottish landlords and clan chiefs forcibly remove a considerable number of their tenants from the Scottish Highlands and Islands in two distinct phases which began in the 1750s and ran through until the 1860s.
The first phase was largely driven by agricultural advancements, as landlords sought to enhance their income amidst significant debts, with the threat of bankruptcy looming over many. This period saw the enclosure of communal fields that were traditionally managed through the run rig system, which were subsequently transformed into expansive pastoral farms that commanded much higher rents. Displaced tenants were anticipated to find work in sectors such as fishing, quarrying, or the kelp industry, leading to a decline in their status from farmers to crofters, which fostered considerable resentment.
The initial phase of the Clearances predominantly took place between 1760 and 1815, although its origins can be traced back to the period preceding the Jacobite Rising of 1745. This early movement was rooted in the decision made by the Dukes of Argyll to auction off leases for farms and townships. The process began with Campbell properties in Kintyre during the 1710s and expanded to encompass all their holdings after 1737.
The second phase was characterized by overcrowded crofting communities that had emerged from the first phase but were now unable to sustain themselves due to famine and the decline of their traditional industries. During this time, “assisted passages” became prevalent, wherein landowners financed the emigration of selected tenants, leaving them with little practical choice but to leave. The Highland Potato Famine, which occurred towards the end of this period, intensified the urgency of these evictions.
This phase of the Clearances commenced around 1815–1820 and extended into the 1850s and was a response to the decline or stagnation of wartime industries coupled with a rising population. The economic impact of these changes is reflected in the commodity prices of the time. Kelp prices had been decreasing since 1810; for instance, the market price in Liverpool dropped from £9 per ton in 1823 to £3 13s 4d per ton in 1828, representing only 41% of the earlier price. Similarly, wool prices fell to a quarter of their value from 1818, and the price of black cattle nearly halved between 1810 and the 1830s.
In this second phase, landlords adopted more severe measures, expelling tenants from their estates. This approach increasingly involved ‘assisted emigration,’ where landlords would forgive rent arrears and cover the travel expenses for ‘surplus’ families to relocate to North America and, later, Australia.
The practice of evicting tenants contradicted the principle of dùthchas, which held that clan members possessed an inherent right to rent land within their clan’s territory, a notion that was never acknowledged by Scottish law. Over time, clan chiefs began to view themselves more as commercial landlords rather than as guardians of their people, a shift that arguably began with the Statutes of Iona in 1609. Meanwhile, clan members continued to adhere to the concept of dùthchas, creating an inevitable source of conflict between the two perspectives. The responses of landlords varied, with some attempting to postpone or limit evictions.
Agriculture in the Scottish Highlands has historically been precarious, with communities facing the persistent threat of famine prior to the clearances. Despite this, the population experienced a steady increase throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries, culminating in a peak of approximately 300,000 individuals in 1851. Emigration was a significant aspect of Highland life both before and during the clearances, reaching its zenith in the aftermath. During the initial phase of the clearances, emigration can be viewed as a form of resistance against the diminished status imposed by the social restructuring of landlords. Various landowners opted to implement improvements necessitating clearance at different times and for diverse motivations.
